Medical microbiology, also known as clinical microbiology, is a subdiscipline of
microbiology dealing with the study of microorganisms (parasites, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and prions) capable of infecting and causing diseases in humans. As with other specialties in medicine, the evolution of medical microbiology is essentially a response to clinical needs. At its core is the study of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of these microorganisms, and its practical applications lie in the form of diagnostic and therapeutic guidance – intrinsically a supportive role in clinical practice. Advances in interconnected disciplines such as immunology, genetics, and bioinformatics have led to the further expansion of this field,

Clinical microbiology has matured into a wide-ranging science, not just a service to process specimens and provide results but also to advise on the collection of specimens, the interpretation of results and management of patients, the selection of antimicrobial agents and in the control of hospital-acquired infections.

Serology is the scientific study of serum and other body fluids. In practice, the term usually refers to the diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum.[1] Such antibodies are typically formed in response to an infection (against a given microorganism),[2] against other foreign proteins (in

response, for example, to a mismatched blood transfusion), or to one’s own proteins (in instances of autoimmune disease). In either case, the procedure is simple.[citation needed]

Serological tests are diagnostic methods that are used to identify antibodies and antigens in a patient’s sample. Serological tests may be performed to diagnose infections and autoimmune illnesses, to check if a person has immunity to certain diseases, and in many other situations, such as determining an individual’s blood type.[1] Serological tests may also be used in forensic serology to investigate crime scene evidence.[3] Several methods can be used to detect antibodies and antigens, including ELISA,[4] agglutination, precipitation, complement-fixation, and fluorescent antibodies and more recently chemiluminescence.[5]

A laboratory test that checks for the presence of antibodies or other substances in a blood sample. Antibodies are proteins made by the body’s immune system in response to a foreign substance or microorganism, such as a virus. Serology tests look for certain antibodies to see whether a person has been exposed to or infected with a virus or other infectious agent. Sometimes antibodies are made against the body’s own tissues. In that case, serology tests are used to look for those antibodies and help diagnose certain immune system disorders, such as autoimmune disorders and immunodeficiency disorders. Serology tests are also used to determine a person’s blood or tissue type.

Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level. The discipline was founded by George Nicolas Papanicolaou in 1928. Cytopathology is generally used on samples of free cells or tissue fragments, in contrast to histopathology, which studies whole tissues. Cytopathology is frequently, less precisely, called “cytology”, which means “the study of cells”.

Cytopathology is commonly used to investigate diseases involving a wide range of body sites, often to aid in the diagnosis of cancer but also in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions.[3] a common application of cytopathology is the Pap smear, a screening tool used to detect precancerous cervical lesions that may lead to cervical cancer. Exfoliative cytology , Intervention cytology , Fine-needle aspiration Sediment cytology , Imprint cytology

Surgical pathology is the most significant area of practice for most anatomical pathologists. Surgical pathology involves gross and microscopic examination of surgical specimens, as well as biopsies submitted by surgeons and non-surgeons such as general internists, medical subspecialists, dermatologists, and interventional radiologists.

The practice of surgical pathology allows for definitive diagnosis of disease (or lack thereof) in any case where tissue is surgically removed from a patient. This is usually performed by a combination of gross (i.e., macroscopic) and histologic (i.e., microscopic) examination of the tissue, and may involve evaluations of molecular properties of the tissue by immunohistochemistry or other laboratory tests.

Surgical pathology is the study of tissue samples removed during surgery. These are used to help diagnose a disease and decide on a treatment plan. Often, a surgical pathologist provides consultation services in a wide variety of organ systems and medical subspecialties. Surgical pathologists give diagnostic information or second opinions. For example, a surgical pathologist may examine tissues removed during breast cancer surgery. This can help the surgeon decide if he or she should remove lymph nodes under the arm as well.

The new technology makes it possible to:

• Tell the difference between noncancerous (benign) and cancerous (malignant) white blood cells
• Find early genetic changes that may result in cancer
• Identify infectious agents in body tissues

Surgical pathologists have the definitive role in tumor diagnosis. No matter how high the index of clinical suspicion, the diagnosis of cancer is not conclusively established nor safely assumed in the absence of a tissue diagnosis. With very few exceptions, definitive therapy for cancer should not be undertaken in the absence of a tissue diagnosis. Policies supporting this practice are written into the bylaws of most hospitals and are regularly monitored by hospital tissue committees and by accrediting agencies.